SUBJECT: Assignment #4, Midterm Exam
COURSE: MCTE 625 - Survey of Courseware
Textbook 1: Instructional Media & Technologies for
Learning, Heinich, Molenda, Russell,
Smaldino (1996), Chapters 3 and 8
Textbook 2: Computers in the classroom: Mindtools for
critical thinking, Jonassen, D. (1996),
Chapters 3 and 4
Professor: Dr. George Fornshell
Student: Leanne C. Boyd
Usercode: boydl
Due date: November 9, 1997
MCTE 625, Midterm Exam
I. Question #1: Heinich: Chapter 3, “Visual Principles”
In manner of introducing this topic, it should be
noted that visual elements, especially in current offerings
in courseware, are an essential part of the tool. Pictures
and other visual components drastically increase the
communications impact of the software. They help to
clarify ideas, they give a focus to aid in retention of
information, and they invoke emotional response to the
subject matter.
A. Verbal Elements
In most courseware, a large part of the content is
verbally or textually based. This includes titles,
subtitles, content, instructions, notes, examples, and
other auxiliary material. These are referred to as the
VERBAL ELEMENTS of the visual principles. Although entire
professions are centered on these elements, such as print
services and publishing houses, there are basic uses of
verbal elements needed in courseware. These contribute
highly to the success of the software when visual
principles have been properly applied. This holds true of a
software development company in the design of a
commercially offered courseware; it also is true of
courseware created by teachers or students for use in
classroom settings.
Close attention to these elements in evaluating or
creating courseware is important, as the visual impact
communicates just as powerfully as the graphic elements.
The foremost criteria is that the verbal elements be
LEGIBLE. One should also look for an attractive lettering
style that is consistent with the material. A minimum
number of lettering styles is preferable in order to avoid
a confusing look to the presentation. For example, two
type-styles with formats in “bold,” “italic,” and
“underlined,” offer diversity without a lot of clutter.
The use of capital letters should be kept to a
minimum. Many capital letters in one line appear to “shout”
at the user! The color and size of the lettering are
dramatically important. Color has the ability to affect and
control emotional responses to a presentation. The user
mentally attaches colors to things like nationality (red,
white and blue), gender (pink/girls and blue/boys), or
economics (money is green in the U.S.A.). There are many
tremendous tools to aid in evaluating and developing
courseware. The online environment, as well as libraries
and bookstores, offer books, charts and posters for
choosing colors in presentations. The contrast between
lettering and background color, for instance, has
tremendous affect on legibility. A color-wheel will help in
evaluating color and using it attractively.
The spacing between letters and between the lines of
text needs special attention. When letters are placed too
closely together, the software becomes almost illegible,
with great effort needed to read the on-screen words. One
of the best judgements for correct placement is by optical
spacing, or by what appears to be best to the eye. The
space between the lines also must be sufficient to avoid an
overcrowded, unreadable look.
B. Elements That Add Appeal
ELEMENTS THAT ADD APPEAL often dictate the level of
success of a courseware. A good attention-grabber gets rid
of the monotony in any presentation! There are three types:
* The element of SURPRISE includes such things as
unusual and unexpected items, the original use of
ideas and pictures, the daring use of sudden colors
–- all are novel and interesting to the user.
* The use of TEXTURE is appealing in courseware. With
modern and sophisticated computer systems, the 2D
graphics can mimic 3D textures in very realistic
ways. This helps, in commercial courseware, in
evaluating the “online environment.” An additional
benefit of computer “textures” is the opportunity
for the teacher or student to become the creator of
these graphics, in software such as Paint (PC) or
Adobe Photoshop (PC or Macintosh).
* One of the most appealing elements is INTERACTION.
This includes buttons and hot linked words that,
when clicked, lead the user to a next page or step.
Interaction also includes multiple choice boxes
such as radio buttons or check-boxes, scrollable
text to read or to input information by the user,
animated items, interactive testing, games, puzzles
–- the list is endless! The most successful
courseware will have a careful balance of the
interactive components. It is also essential that
the interactivity is easily workable and without
technical errors. Of all these, interactivity gives
the user a feeling of control over his online
environment. Repeated use of well-constructed
interactivity increases knowledge of and confidence
in computer abilities.
II. Question #2: Heinich: Chapter 8, “Computers”
One of the most powerful uses of a single computer is
simply stated in our text: There is an inestimable and
abundance of material available for free (freeware and
public domain) or for low cost (shareware) on the Internet.
This is an invaluable resource for single-computer use by
an individual or a team, in research, writing, and creation
of textual or presentation materials. Shareware or software
can be used to compile information from researches, and to
write technical reports, creative writings, journals or any
other written account. Graphics obtained as copyright-free
items on the Internet, as well as user-created graphics,
can be used singularly, or as components of a presentation.
Although our text states that this type of teaching,
where a computer delivers instruction directly to the
student, is referred to as CAI (computer-assisted
instruction), I feel that this is a partial misnomer.
Except for the categories of “Drill and Practice” and
sometimes “Tutorial,” the capacities of the single computer
and the Internet (and other electronic tools such as CD-
ROMs) go far beyond the limited offerings of the usual
description of CAI. The only common focus is the part of
“computer-assisted.” Traditional CAI software, for several
decades, has mostly been the electronic regurgitation of
traditional “blackboard” teaching methods. My studies in
the categories of games, simulations, discovery, problem
solving, and even tutorials, however, revealed that the
assistance of the computer leads to dramatic results in
creative, critical, declarative, analytical and all other
forms of DEEPER THINKING. This places the computer as an
unprecedented educational tool and FAR BEYOND the scope of
CAI as we’ve known it.
Excellent examples were found in researching available
courseware in the above-mentioned categories. All of these
are excellent for use with a single computer:
* DRILL AND PRACTICE
In seeking helpful shareware for my daughter, to aid
in memorizing basic math facts and learning the components
of the English language (noun, verb, etc.), I realized that
the most valuable tool would be a straightforward drill
and practice courseware. The Internet offers an incredible
array of such tools. One of the best series found was
available via the Boston University FTP server (link to:
ftp://ftp.bu.edu/pub/mirrors/simtelnet/win3 ). This site
offers the Simtel.Net collections, the origin of Keith
Petersen's worldwide distribution network for shareware,
freeware, and public domain applications. Some are:
- fls32_40.zip, Windows make-your-own flashcards system
- dolskl10.zip, DollarSkills v1.00: Money Math Software
- eng201v6.zip, English 201: Homonyms
- eng206v6.zip, English 206: Contractions
- eng208v6.zip, English 208: Subject and Predicate
This series has provided patient drill time for my
5th-grader in learning fundamentals. The programs have an
easy interface, appropriate for use by a youngster. An
especially nice addition is the system of “encouragement”
the software has -- rewarding comments for jobs well done.
Drill and Practice programs are based on behaviorist
theories of reinforcement of stimulus-to-response
associations. In the case of my child, the fact that D&P
software does not foster deep thinking skills was not a
factor. She simply needed to learn these skills by rote. In
this sense, the learning experience was not meaningless (as
so often D&P are accused of being), but necessary.
* TUTORIAL
In a tutorial, the computer acts as one-on-one teacher
for the student. In a rather ironic twist of timing, I had
my first opportunity to observe and test a rather complex
tutorial for mathematics software for 4th-graders. This
tutorial is available for use by not only CD-ROM, but also
through the interactive means of Macromedia’s Shockwave and
the Java programming language, on the Internet. The ironic
twist is that, in the early development of this software, I
was a member of the development team. It has taken almost
two years in a cooperative effort of the Metropolitan State
College of Denver, USWest Communications, local Denver
school districts, and student interns to complete this
project. I headed the animation team for the first leg, and
created not only the basic character (an alien being named
Wyzt) but also many animations in Macromedia Director. The
launching of the software, backed by Asymetrix Inc., was
timely for this report! “Wyzt’s Playground” may be viewed
and utilized at: http://clem.mscd.edu/~techcom/wyzt/ .
My part in this project was purely digital graphics.
Therefore, the functional side of the tutorial is
fascinating to compare with similar abilities found in
commercial courseware. Math problems are presented in
varying degrees of complexity. Students log on via a
password system devised by the teacher. All responses and
results are logged within the software. The interface is
very bright and attractive, and children find the game-
like environment to be encouraging with what amounts to
drill and practice techniques. Students may save their work
and return at a later date. The tutorial goes through many
levels of increasing difficulty, and offers literally
hundreds of choices along the way. Each learning situation
poses questions that end in exciting, FUN feedback for
correct answers, and patient, FUN remedial methods
for wrong answers. The software gives the instructor
options for evaluating students’ work at the end of the
learning task. Teachers may choose from a criteria list,
and print results of just one child’s efforts, or
comparison tables for an entire classroom’s individual work
rated against the work of their peers.
Even having been part of this team, the final outcome
of this tutorial was impressive! With its detailed network
of branches the lessons give the user avenues for many
hours of new learning adventures. The overall effectiveness
is excellent! As for the use of this courseware with a
single computer –- many local Denver districts have already
adopted its use in the classroom.
* GAMES
Games can be perhaps the most effective learning tool
available, for some users. Children who are shy, for
instance, can be stimulated into deep thinking and learning
when engaged one-on-one with a computer game. Sometimes the
game will have attributes of a simulation software, where
the “reality-factor” is astonishing. Many games stimulate
very deep thinking skills, including reflective thinking,
problem solving, critical thinking, and of course, creative
thinking. Many times, the game accelerates in speed as the
user gets better. This refines not just quick thinking, but
also hand and eye motor skills.
One of the finest action games that has ever been
produced was found in research for this class. It also
happens to be more than entertainment –- it is soundly
based in World History. “Age of Empires” by Microsoft, has
just been released (October 1997). The game is based on
twelve actual historical cultures, with scenes that really
happened, such as Hannibal’s journeys, the Trojan Horse
caper, and scenes from the histories of Egypt, Japan,
Greece, and many others. Learners are placed in an action-
packed setting that requires extremely fast, but deep and
critical thinking. The interface is increasingly difficult;
it is also the most realistic, simulation-type graphical
interface I have ever seen. This software generates a
desire to return again and again. Along with the excitement
of a terrific game, AOE provides endless opportunities for
learning much about history. Because the student is so
actively involved in decision-making, they are very
unlikely to forget “the lessons of history!” This is not
just a successful game, it is a highly successful learning
tool. I would use this software in a heartbeat –- in a
single-computer use in classroom or media center, or in a
network of computers with students learning and playing
together.
* SIMULATION
A simulation software offers a realistic learning
environment and an approximation of a real-life situation.
Most simulation software have an ultra-realistic graphical
interface. Because of the heavy use of sophisticated
software and programming in the development stages,
simulations can offer an excitement that is akin to a game.
The user, utilizing the computer in a solitary environment,
is pitted against the standards written into the software.
Simulators allow for advancement based upon the performance
of the learner. In this way, REAL skills can be practiced
in a safe, risk-free way. Many occupations use the
simulator for training, including the military, many
industrial companies, airlines, and even sports. The
learner can be placed electronically into a situation that
would be life-or-death if it were real, such as driving a
car with impending dangers lurking around every curve, or
the operation of a critically complex machine. Many times,
it is not just the risk/danger factor, but also the cost
factor of training on an expensive machine that makes a
simulation the preferred training medium.
My best discovery of a simulation was found at the ATS
Aerospace Web Site, at http://www.ATSaerospace.com/ . This
Canadian company provides the highest state-of-the-art
simulators available for industrial training in aviation.
The software packages are created on Silicon Graphic
Workstations, and the user interface is supra realistic.
Commercial and military sites worldwide have purchased the
simulators. They allow the learner to strategize and to
think creatively and critically in potentially dangerous,
even fatal, situations. This is perhaps the height of all
examples for learning to face risky situations. In no other
manner could a learner “practice” methods and strategies
in, for example, an airplane crash. This simulator helps
devise plans for situations ranging from disasters to
everyday traffic pattern incidents. The learner develops
deeper thinking skills in reasoning, analytical thinking
and problem solving, to name a few.
* DISCOVERY
Discovery courseware can present possibly the height
of “mindtool” capabilities. They mirror the laboratory
experience in that, through trial and error or through
systematic approaches, the student is allowed to discover
his own means toward knowledge. For instance, this kind of
discovery could be actuated with information retrieval
software that extracts data from a database. From there,
comparisons can be made, results charted, and conclusions
formed. Some discovery lessons analyze large databases such
as population information. Many times in the academic
environment, a discovery system can be created or a
template utilized for a topic-specific discovery lesson.
My research revealed one such template for a discovery
system. “Web Queries Import Tool” is a shareware (link to
PC World, http://www.pcworld.com/home/ ). A student can get
information directly from a Web site, place it in a
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, and then use the information
in whatever method is best for the project. The information
can be brought in directly from a web page or the template
can be easily customized to bring in just the information
that fits specified criteria.
Once the data is in Excel, the student may sort,
identify, compare, and chart. This tool would be useful in
creating a large database of information, without the
necessity of hand-inputting the information. Several to
countless websites may be researched and all information
might be imported. At this point, the student is faced with
decision-making needs, as well as critical and creative
thinking.
After the sorting process is completed, the student is
in the position of actually constructing knowledge, or at
least a visible system of viewing the knowledge. This
“mindtool” is excellent for utilizing active processing of
information in a meaningful way. It helps the learner
review the cumulative effect in gathering facts and
assessing information. Users learn to integrate new
knowledge with prior knowledge. This tool is very goal-
oriented. The learning results from an intentional assembly
of specified facts, for a systematic approach for
discovery.
In a single-computer usage, my vision is a personal
one for this shareware. I see that it will be a priceless
tool for many aspects of my Nova experience. It will allow
me to create a large, searchable database of content
related to my studies in computer technology and education.
It will also allow me to attach the URLs of the websites,
for a personalized and readily useful means of review.
This shareware was, indeed, a serendipitous find, and one
that I will use for a long while!
* PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving courseware enables the student to use
his existing knowledge and skills in mastering a new
problem. In this way, the software initiates the student to
use much higher thinking skills than the other categories.
Depending on the project’s subject matter and the amount
of data, the learner must examine the information, clearly
define the problem, create a hypothesis, perform
experiments and then generate a solution.
Our text suggests that LOGO software, invented by
Seymour Papert, teaches problem solving in this way. One
very good benefit of problem solving courseware is that it
allows the student to devise his own method of obtaining a
solution, generated from generic attributes of the
software. LOGO is a great tool for learning a programming
language, even at a young age, but its real value is that
it enables children to utilize the computer for *problem
solving.* The student learns to use strategic, complex
thinking to develop a systematic and individualized tool of
his own making. The user also learns confidence in the
computer as a tool, and in his ability to control
information for a logical, specific purpose. Papert’s love
of the computer and its many uses surely translated well
into his design of LOGO. There have been offshoots of this
language, such as “Ladybug Logo,” which is further
simplified in its approach. The overall outcome, however,
is that the student can develop a one-to-one relationship
with his tool and with his efforts (his project).
Personalized in this way, this is science and math placed
in an environment where they are *used* and not just
“learned.” The discovery system also gives immediate
feedback. After much study of LOGO’s history, I am
convinced that this should be taught to students at an
early age, and utilized across the curriculum. Started
early, children will become accustomed to thinking in a
higher, orderly manner.
III. Question #3: Jonassen: Chapter 3, “Databases”
In a certain sense, the Internet is the grandest
database management system (DBMS) ever conceived! Since
DBMSs were originally designed to replace paper-based data
retrieval systems, it is astounding to think of the
“bottomless drawer” effect of the Internet as one enormous
filing system. This concept is rapidly growing as companies
and even academic institutions are finding that the
database capabilities on the worldwide ‘Net or an internal
Intranet are very fast, efficient, and have endless room
for expansion. The grander structure of Internet-based
databases operates on the same premise as a single software
on one computer. They both provide these components: the
database itself (collection of records), a file management
system, organization tools, and means for reporting and
printing. In Internet-based databases, many of these
functions are provided by the specific web browser.
Databases offer an efficient means for collecting
information, but their most powerful offerings are for
searching, sorting, and retrieving the information
contained within the database.
The database is an effective mindtool because the
learner is required to analyze the underlying structural
properties of the information in order to construct and
query the database. The database then serves as a model for
the content. Higher order thinking is necessary to be able
to understand these relationships.
In my previous position as Audio-Visual Specialist in
the Media Center of Denver’s largest high school, my first
project was to quickly organize my department’s
educational software and hardware. I enlisted the help of
student interns for data entry. The model for my database
eventually became a template for other projects within the
school, both student- and teacher-generated. At the time,
however, the task seemed enormous. It ended up taking four
months of very hard work and double overtime to create the
foundation of this database.
The database consisted of fields covering every
possible “descriptor” associated with over 20,000 separate
pieces of software and hardware. These included the object
name, purchase date, serial number, model number, and
probably 20 other very boring, usual descriptions. The
individual “cards” of the database resembled what was found
in the old-fashioned Card Catalog of the library. That was
because that information came directly from the Card
Catalog! Similar processes were being followed in the
library, as all printed materials were being processed and
cataloged for the then-infant CARL system (Colorado
Alliance of Research Libraries). Later, my database would
be fed into the larger CARL system.
The truly unique aspect that eventually turned my
large database into a “mindtool” was the structure of the
REST of the content in the fields. There were fields for
not only check-in and –out of materials, but also for
teachers to make comments on the object. This turned out to
be an invaluable research capability for student and
substitute teachers, as well as students looking for
specific classroom notes. The comment section was also
open to the input of students. As these notes were browsed,
they literally opened up pathways for using “long-lost”
items, such as older but excellent slide sets or very
ancient films. Newer teachers would have completely missed
certain learning tools if it weren’t for the available
comments of previous teachers. Items that had been unused
for years went back into circulation.
Although I was the one to construct the structure of
this database, it soon became apparent that teachers and
students were “generatively processing” their own
information into it...the database had become a “medium for
socially negotiating a common understanding.” This project,
no longer solely my own, became a very productive
collaboration –- much more than a single project could ever
have been. It was intensely valuable to our individual
school because it had been so personalized by so many.
The database was created in Claris FileMaker Pro for
Macintosh. Because each classroom was wired for the
computer and had at least one Macintosh, teachers began to
ask for “clones” of the database structure. Once licensing
had been approved for several machines, this prototype was
instituted by many departments.
As for my database? The grapevine tells me that the
tool I initiated in 1992 and sadly bade good-bye in 1994,
is still being utilized and updated with minimal effort on
the part of a few teachers. It still is being used as an
extraordinarily form-fitted mindtool at North High. Many of
the clones have been kept up to date. As each new set of
students participates in the building of this software,
they are actively and meaningfully engaged in learning,
rather than just reading or responding with little thought.
Additionally, they eventually leave the school knowing they
have contributed a portion of themselves for the enrichment
of all. Like my own feelings, their “gift of self” gives
each one a sense of legacy.
IV. Question #4: Jonassen: Chapter 4, “Spreadsheets”
Since I discussed spreadsheets in classroom settings
in Question #2, I will talk about the use of spreadsheets
as an educational/informational tool in the corporate
setting. Spreadsheets are numerical, computerized record
keeping systems. Since 1988 and version 1.xx (? –- I think
it was 1.5) of Microsoft Excel, I have used spreadsheet
techniques for all of my personal finances. They are
effective in record keeping, but they are even more useful
for sorting and comparing data. My approach to Excel and
spreadsheets was one of slam and dunk. I was quickly
initiated in the mathematical and logical operations
available in Excel. Exactly 6 months after purchasing a Mac
II and Laserwriter printer, I obtained a contract position
with a Denver legal firm. They were heavily involved in a
national lawsuit that had to do with a local shopping
mall and the use of asbestos in earlier years, for
insulation.
After the truck pulled up and deposited more than a
dozen big boxes inside my living room, I proceeded to
ponder what it was going to be like to personally lay hands
on more than 25,000 individual sheets of paper. These were
reports done over a span of three years by four
environmental firms. The shopping mall had 250+ shops and
miles of mall walkways. Many pounds of dirt, air and water
had been sampled, re-sampled and experimented on. The
amazing results were sitting in stacks on my living room
floor. *I* was sitting on that same floor, chastising
myself for my unfettered enthusiasm for having gone after
this contract job.
I learned, within that first 24 hours, how
intrinsically simple it is to set up a mindtool in Excel.
Of course, I didn’t call it that at that time, but
nonetheless, it was just that. The learning curve over the
next five-and-one-half weeks (that is ALL it took...well,
including the nights...I did not sleep much at all) was
intense. Excel, with its spreadsheet functions and the
ability to convert results into charts, made this into an
incredible learning journey. I not only learned the
software, and how to create the structure for a gigantic
stack of information –- I also intimately learned methods
of scientific research, biological and environmental
issues, scientific and legal terminology, formulas,
chemical compounds and their effect on dust, sidewalk
cement and living creatures, and the names and phone
numbers of more folks involved in ecological catastrophic
events than I *ever* wanted to know!
The first three weeks was my time of the (non-
religious) laying on of hands. I personally held each slice
of paper (my then-2-year old daughter’s description) long
enough to transport the information in the printed table
into my own Excel tables. Not all of the info was to be
input, as I was working from DOS-based Lotus sheets with
partial input of the materials. So, I added to my “learning
list,” an early introduction on how to drag Mac and PC into
a teeth-clenched “bilingual” (multi-platform) world...LONG
before anyone I knew was doing it.
Arbitrary bits of information also had to be derived
from written accounts such as letters, memos and lab
reports. Those took much longer. My Excel spreadsheet soon
ate up huge chunks of the Mac II’s HUGE 40-megabyte hard
drive. (It’s amazing, looking back, what I made that beast
do!) The long and short of the rest of this story is that,
in 5-1/2 weeks, the paper in the boxes dwindled as the data
swelled into Excel’s electronic columns. Since the auditors
didn’t want the papers back, I gladly gave the boxes new
homes in the Dumpster in the alley. My spreadsheet had long
outgrown the memory ability of Excel to even bring up the
document. I had to break it into more than a dozen pieces.
When the data was all input, then the fun began.
Excel (even the earliest versions) has marvelous abilities
for reconstructing information into color charts. I was
required to sort the information into three categories: the
air samplings, the hard particle samplings, and the water
samplings. Furthermore, I had to do these three categories
according to locations within the mall. There were almost
100 charts in the final book.
I input, I sorted, I charted, I printed, I re-printed,
I proofed, I had THEM proof, I re-printed, re-sorted, re-
charted, etc... What I did was I almost DIED. Then, one
fine day, we reached agreement that each and every page was
a “final, camera-ready” copy -- including the charts (some
pie, some bar, some combo). I called the accountants and
away went...what was to become a 300-page book that was
delivered to legal firms throughout the nation.
I slept. It took two weeks to physically recover.
Eventually they delivered payment. I paid off the $10K+ on
the Mac equipment, about nine months from the day I had
purchased it. This incredible mindtool also paid expenses!
To this day, I am incredibly impressed with the
diverse functionality of Excel and spreadsheets. Excel 8.0
now delivers so much more than did version 1-dot-whatever.
(1.5?) I still use Excel extensively. I still am the
avid learner, every time! Recent self-training in spread-
sheet-land has included a searchable database of my video
and CD libraries. Because my Power Mac 7100 AV station
works so well with multimedia, I may even make the tool
“sortable” by ... short video clippings and sound samples?
(...and I will do this in all that spare time I have!)
If you have comments or suggestions, email me at Leanne@refuge-earth.org
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